The Story of Raga: A Man�fs Ethnography on His Own Society (VI): Rank-taking Ritual

Masanori YOSHIOKA

INTRODUCTION

This is the sixth part of an �gexperimental ethnography�h entitled �gThe Story of Raga,�h which consists of a text written in Raga (the language of North Raga) by the late Rev. David Tevimule in 1966, with its English translation. An introduction is also provided, describing the data collected during my field research on the same topic.

       The original title of David Tevimule�fs text, which was written in the form of a hand-copied booklet, is Vevhurin Raga, which means �gThe Story of Raga.�h It consists of twenty chapters and concerns various aspects of North Raga culture: its origin myth, kin relations, rank-taking ritual, chiefs, certain rituals for boys and girls, and customs concerning birth, marriage, and death. In this paper, I translate Chapter 14 in which David Tevimule describes the rank-taking ritual, which is related to the public graded society.

       The islands in Northern Vanuatu were known to anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as an area where the so-called �gsecret society�h as well as the �gpublic graded society�h existed (cf. Codrington 1891, Rivers 1914). Anthropologists studying Vanuatu during that time were mainly interested in the former type of society, and thus information concerning the graded society was incomplete. In contrast, in the later twentieth century, the public graded society became one of the main themes for Vanuatu anthropology and detailed studies were made (cf. Allen 1981). I also examined the graded society of North Raga in detail in my ethnography on North Raga based on my field research¹ (Yoshioka 1998). In this paper, I describe the ritual aspects of the graded society of North Raga.

1  Pigs

       Pigs (boe) play an important role in the rank-taking ritual called Bolololi. Pigs are the most valuable exchange goods, and the main purpose of the Bolololi ritual is to kill pigs and purchase several insignias by paying in pigs. Pigs are mainly divided into sows (dura), bisexual pigs (ravwe), and boars. The latter two kinds of pigs have tusks and the bigger the tusks are, the more valuable the pigs are considered. Although the bisexual pigs played important roles in the past because their tusks were bigger, it is currently said that such pigs no longer exist in North Raga. Therefore, boars play important roles in today�fs Bolololi. Hereafter in this paper, the term �gpig�h refers to a �gboar.�h

       There is no special name for a boar in the Raga language, so the word indicating all kinds of pig, boe, is used to refer to a boar. Boe is broadly classified into two categories. One is udurugu, which refers to a boar not yet castrated, and the other is bovtaga, which refers to a castrated boar. The boar, sometime after birth, begins to grow tusks called basina from its upper jaw. The pig at this growth stage is called udurubasiga; it is considered ready for castration and its basina tusks are extracted. The basina are extracted because they hinder the growth of the tusks growing from the lower jaw. These tusks, called livo, mark the value of the pig. It is said that boars should be castrated; otherwise they will fight each other and break the valuable livo tusks.

The numbers in Table 1 refer to the �gkind�h of classified boars. Pigs from no. 1 to no. 4 are classified as udurugu, whereas those from no. 5 to no. 26 are bovtaga. The tusks from the lower jaw grow in an arc shape at the stage of bobibia (no. 11) and the top of the tusk may touch the cheek. At that point, the cheek is cut so that the tusk may grow through the cheek smoothly. The tusk grows in the shape of an arc and the tip eventually reaches the lower jaw again. Then the tooth of the lower jaw, which touches the tip of the tusk, is extracted. In this stage, the tusks of most pigs stop growing because their tips reach the bone of the lower jaw and cannot easily continue to grow. There are few pigs with bigger tusks than livoaltavaga (no. 17). Only some pigs whose tusks grow without touching the lower jawbone reach the stage of livoalbasiga (no. 18). It is said that now there is no man who has ever seen a pig with a bigger tusk than livoallivoa (no. 22).    

Table 1�@Class and kind of pig

Since the pigs are classified according to the rough size of the

tusk, it  is difficult to exactly determine the kind of pig. That is, there are no strict criteria by which to differentiate, for example, bololvaga (no. 5) from langvonosia (no. 6). However lahoa (no. 1) can be clearly differentiated from langvonosia (no. 4), which is in turn decidedly regarded as different from tavsiri (no. 8). This is because lahoa has no tusks whereas langvonosia has tusks, and the tusks of langvonosia do not grow outside the mouth whereas those of tavsiri do. According to such concrete indices, certain kinds of pigs are combined into a class. People call pigs from no. 1 to no. 4 udurugu (class A) and pigs from no. 5 to no. 7 bololvaga (class B). The class of tavsiri (class C) is composed of only one kind of pig. The class of bobibia (class D) is differentiated from tavsiri by the former having arc-shaped tusks and the latter having straight tusks that have not yet begun to curve. The pigs in class E, mabu whose tusks reach the lower jaw, are clearly differentiated from the pigs in class F, livoala, because the tusks in class F do not stop growing at the lower jawbone (i.e., the tusks continue to grow).

       Although classes are clearly delineated, numerous disputes occur regarding the classification of pigs. For example, it is often disputed whether a pig whose tusks have just begun to curve is in class C or D. In one case, a pig that was declared to be in class F was given to a man, but after slaughtering this pig, he found that its tusks did not grow over the lower jawbone. In such a case, the claim by the giver of the pig is usually maintained and the receiver can only grumble about it.

2  Outline of the Bolololi Ritual 

       Codrington reported that the name of the public graded society in North Raga was Loli (Codrington 1891:114), whereas it was called Suqe in the Banks Islands and Huqe in Ambae (Codrington 1891:104, 113). It seems strange that the name in North Raga would be completely different from those in other parts of Vanuatu. During my field research, I did not find any name for the graded society. It seemed that people might not think that the graded system can be considered a �gsociety,�h and I found only that people call the ritual concerning the graded system Bolololi.

As shown in Table 2, in North Raga there are presently four grades for men, named from lowest to highest as tari (meaning �gto lay the foundation�h or �ga male child or son�h), moli (whose meaning is not known to the people), livusi (meaning �gto climb over the hill�h), which is also called udu (meaning �ghalf�h) or nggarai (meaning �gto get over�h), and vira (meaning �ga flower�h). To enter the upper grade, it is necessary to kill pigs of a prescribed class and prescribed number as well as to purchase certain kinds of insignia by paying in pigs of a prescribed class and number. A man who enters the last grade vira is called ratahigi, a traditional political leader translated as jif (chief) in Bislama, Vanuatu Pidgin.²  It is necessary to kill a pig of class B to enter the first grade tari and to kill a pig of class C or D to enter the second grade moli. Although people kill pigs in these cases in a fixed fashion, special rituals are not settled. Those who enter these grades are usually children whose fathers make them kill pigs to be served as side dishes during feasts. After this, the child enters the grade of moli. He should then purchase a special insignia during his tenure in the moli grade, and this performance should be done in a special ritual. This is the first Bolololi. The ritual has many variations according to which grade is to be entered or what kind of insignia is to be purchased.  Bolololi is a general term indicating the series of these rituals.

                      Table 2 Grade and pig-killing today

       Certain characters appear and play important roles in Bolololi rituals. One of them is the man who will kill pigs and purchase insignias in the ritual, referred to as a novice or �ga central figure.�h He is the chairperson of the Bolololi ritual as well as of the feast held after Bolololi. Preparations for a Bolololi usually begin 10 days before the ritual and are made in cooperation with residents of the village where the Bolololi will be held, for whom feasts of dining and drinking kava³  are held every day until the day of Bolololi.

Although the yams and taro used in the feasting are brought by the villagers, the side dishes and kava are served by the central figure of the Bolololi. When the ritual is approaching, a big shelf is made, on which the central figure heaps up yams or taro for the feast on the day of Bolololi. Villagers also voluntarily pile up their own yams or taro to help the central figure.

Bolololi is performed on the ritual ground called sara and the feast after Bolololi is held in the meeting-house called gamali. The ritual ground as well as the meeting-house are said to be possessed by men who already entered the vira grade, namely, chiefs (ratahigi). Although there are some villages with plural meeting-houses, generally there is only one meeting-house in a village. Since there are usually multiple chiefs in each village, the meeting-house is said to be commonly owned by these chiefs. The central figure of Bolololi is counseled by these chiefs concerning what kind of insignia he will purchase, what grade he will enter, and so on. Some of these chiefs play important roles in Bolololi such as by explaining the class of pigs and informing people of the �gpig name�h (iha boe) of the central figure when he kills the pig. The pig name is associated with the name of the grade and is given to a man whenever he kills a pig to enter a certain grade. For example, if a man kills a pig and enters the grade of moli, he is given a name such as Molgaga, Molmemea, Molture, and so on. If the grade is tari, the pig name may be Tarihala, Tariliu, and so on. The chiefs playing roles in the ritual direct the proceedings and also must give formal approval to the central figure.

In Bolololi, several kinds of dances are performed in the beginning of the ritual. This is followed by the stage of boemwarovo, meaning �ga pig runs.�h In this stage, many men run slowly on the ritual ground in a zigzag fashion to the rhythm of the slit-drums. They are the men who will give pigs to the central figure. Here, I call them �gpig-givers.�h The central figure does not provide all of the pigs used for insignia payments and killing to enter the upper grade. Even if the central figure has enough pigs to use in the ritual, he should receive pigs from many men during the �ga pig runs�h stage. The stage of �ga pig runs�h is then followed by the stage of killing pigs and of purchasing insignias.

A man who holds the first Bolololi is in the grade of moli. When he wants to enter the grade of livusi, it is necessary for him to kill one pig of class E. If a man of livusi enters the last grade, vira, he should kill one pig of class F. Killing only one pig to enter the upper grade is a minimum requirement, and men try to kill more pigs than is required because the more pigs a man kills, the more prestige he can accrue. The pigs are beaten to death. This action was, in the past, associated with acquiring the supernatural power called rorongo. People believed that the more they killed pigs, the more supernatural power they obtained. Today, this belief is disappearing. However, it is still considered praiseworthy for a man to destroy his valuable goods (that is, he kills his pigs) and give them as meat to people at the feast after the ritual. A man who killed only one pig to enter the upper grade would be subject to ridicule.

       Before entering the vira grade, sese is required. Sese refers to the killing of 10 pigs of any class. Even if a man of the livusi grade kills eight or nine pigs, this is not considered sese. After entering the grade of vira, a man cannot enter a higher grade no matter how many pigs he kills. However, a chief, who is of the vira grade, will aim to kill 10 pigs of class E, which is called mabuhangvulu. With this, the chief attains a higher rank. The word loli within Bolololi means �gto perform.�h In Bolololi many spectators surround the ritual ground, and it is necessary for a man to reveal his rank and display his power in front of many spectators.

In the past there were five grades and the number of the pigs to be killed was much greater than today.⁴  This is shown in Table 3. Great chiefs in the past who killed more pigs came up with new pig names for themselves. As mentioned above, a man in vira cannot rise to a higher grade, regardless of the number of pigs killed. Thus the pig name associated with the grade does not change. If new names are acquired by killing more pigs, these names are not associated with the name of the grade. For example, two such names are famous today. One is Huhunganvanua and the other is Tunggorovanua. The former was a name that was chosen by the chief Viradoro. Viradoro is a proper pig name. After Viradoro entered the grade of vira, he kept killing pigs. He finally named himself Huhunganvanuau, meaning �gthe peak of the island.�h The latter name Tunggorovanua, meaning �gto stand shutting out the island,�h is that of the chief Viramasoi. These names are so famous that some people today think that they are names of grades that are even higher than vira.

                   Table 3 Grade and pig killing in the past

3  Giving and Taking of Pigs

       Bolololi is also called �gbisines pig�h in Bislama, Vanuatu Pidgin. It is called �gpig business�h because in Bolololi the giving and taking of pigs is the main theme of the stages of �ga pig runs�h and purchasing insignias. Here I explain the giving and taking of pigs in the stage of �ga pig runs.�h

       In this stage, the pig-giver, after running in zigzag fashion on the ritual ground, stands at one end of the ground with his pig. He tells the class or the kind of the pig to the central figure. He also tells him �gthe way of giving.�h There are basically two ways of giving pigs: vuro and bugu. If the pig is given as vuro, the pig-receiver should give back a pig of the same class in the stage of �ga pig runs�h of future Bolololi of the pig-giver. Because of this, vuro is often translated as a debt. The return-giving is called halavuro or sobwe, and the latter�fs noun form is sobwesobwe or sobwesobweana (Figure 1). If the novice, namely, the central figure of the Bolololi formerly gave pigs as vuro in the Bolololi rituals of several men, these men may return pigs now as sobwesobwe in the stage of �ga pig runs.�h It is not certain whether they will return

pigs in this Bolololi because the date of the returning is not fixed

although the returning is obligatory. Moreover even if the pig-giver asks the pig-receiver to give back a pig, the latter often declines saying that he has no pigs with him. A man who decides to hold Bolololi usually asks men to whom he gave pigs as vuro to return pigs as

sobwesobwe. However, it depends on the intention of the pig-receiver whether he will return a pig as sobwesobe. Therefore, it is not until the man whom he gave a pig as vuro starts to run on the ritual ground in the �ga pig runs�h stage that the central figure knows that the man is returning a pig as sobwesobwe. Additionally, the central figure of Bolololi only expects that pigs will be given as vuro. In this case too, only when a pig-giver starts to run on the ritual ground does the central figure know that they are making vuro.

        When a pig of class B (bololvaga) is given, the pig-giver usually says in a loud voice, �gYour debt is bololvaga (Vuromwa bololvaga).�h But he sometimes says, �gYour masa is bololvaga (Masamwa bololvaga). �h⁵  Masa means a pig that should be killed. Although it depends on the intention of the pig-receiver, namely the central figure of the ritual, whether a pig given simply as vuro may be used as payment for insignia or killed in order to enter the upper grade, a pig given as masa should be killed in the ritual. If the central figure wants to use this pig as the payment for insignia, he should get the permission of the pig-giver. Even if the pig is sobwesobwe, namely a returned pig, it can be appointed as masa and the right of how to use it is preserved by the pig-giver. In a Bolololi I observed, a man brought a pig as sobwesobwe and appointed it as masa. The central figure of the ritual (the pig-receiver) wanted to use it as a payment and negotiated with the giver. But the negotiations broke down and the man took back his pig. The central figure wanted to use the masa pig for payment because he otherwise lacked a pig of the class needed to purchase the insignia. This happens because, until the ritual starts, the central figure cannot know how many and what kinds of pigs will be given as vuro or given back as sobwesobwe.


        
A pig given as bugu is different from a pig of vuro and is brought without fail to the ritual ground on the day of Bolololi. This is because a pig of bugu is requested in advance from a particular man, who agrees to bring the pig on the day of the ritual. On the night before Bolololi, a feast to drink kava is held in the village meeting-house. At that time, the man who was asked to make bugu would be the first to drink kava, showing that he is a bugu-giver. The pig given as bugu should be of a class higher than class D. The giving of a pig as bugu should be returned but the manner of return is completely different from that of vuro. Suppose the bugu-giver is A, the bugu-receiver is B, and the Bolololi of B is ? (Figure 2). First, A runs on the ritual ground in the stage of �ga pig runs�h of Bolololi ? and gives a pig as bugu to B. Then in the latter stage of Bolololi ?, B gives two pigs and one or two large red mats to A. This is the first counter-giving to the bugu-giver. The two pigs are respectively called tautau (meaning �gto put�h) and laitali (meaning �gto give a rope tethering a pig�h). The red mat is called tavwen gana (payment for a bait). It is said that the payment for a bait is a necessary token of gratitude because much care is needed to breed and raise a pig with very big tusks. The class of these pigs and the number of red mats depend on the class of the pig of bugu (Table 4).

      At some time after Bolololi ?, B holds a Bolololi. Suppose this Bolololi is ?. Between ? and ?, A gives four pigs to B. This is called sariboe (meaning �gto poke a pig�h). If A gave two pigs to B in Bolololi ?, the number of sariboe pigs is three. In this way, B would receive 5 pigs before his Bolololi ?. Then in Bolololi ?, B gives 10 pigs, one large red mat, and 10 small red mats. This is the second counter-giving to the bugu-giver. Of the 10 pigs, five pigs are of the same class as the pigs given by A. The class of the other five pigs is said to become higher if the class of bugu is higher. In fact, however, it depends on the number

                   Table 4 First counter-giving for bugu

and the class of pigs that are given to B on the day of the ritual and it would not be proper for A to complain about the class of these five pigs. The ten pigs are tethered to 10 sticks that have been driven into the ritual ground. If it is the first time for B to give 10 pigs to the bugu-giver, the 10 pigs are tethered to 10 trunks of cycad palm driven into the ritual ground. This is called mwelvavunu.

4  Reciprocity

       There are mainly four concepts for exchange in the Raga language, tabeana, vuro, bugu, and mwemwearuvwa, the last of which was described in detail in The Story of Raga III. These four concepts are shown schematically in Figure 3. Although for tabeana, a counter-gift of any kind is neither required nor expected, a counter-gift of an equivalent value is expected for mwemwearuvwa. For vuro it is obligatory whereas for bugu it is necessary to pay it back with a big �gprofit.�h In the case of tabeana, the relationship between the giver and receiver is finished when the gift flows unilaterally, for the counter-gift is not settled. When a receiver thinks that he or she gives back something to the giver, a new flow of tabeana begins. In the case of mwemwearuvwa, a counter-gift is expected but it does not become a complicated matter if the counter-gift is not actually given. The relationship between the giver and the receiver continues for longer than for tabeana, but may be shorter than vuro for which a counter-gift should be given.

       These three categories of tabeana, mwemwearuvwa, and vuro, although schematically differentiated, are actually intertwined. There are some cases in which a thing given as tabeana is regarded by the receiver as mwemwearuvwa while a thing of mwemwearvwa is thought of as vuro. Such treatments are said to be proper because the relationship between the giver and the receiver will continue for a longer time. In North Raga the spirit of reciprocity is very important in people�fs lives. Reciprocity or mutual aid is expressed by the word mwemwearuana. The intertwining of these concepts explained above is thought to strengthen mwemwearuana, the reciprocity or mutual aid. Tabeana may be considered a kind of mwemwearuana because it is done in order to help the receiver. Vuro, namely the debt, is also regarded as the starting point of the relationship of mwemwearuana and the counter-gift to the vuro, that is, sobwesobwe is also thought to be a kind of mwemwearuana.

       Different from these three kinds of exchange, bugu is used only in the case of pig-exchange in Bolololi and seems to be independent from the above three concepts. However, it is possible to find the concepts of tabeana, mwemwearuvwa, and vuro in the giving and taking of bugu. The first counter-giving to the bugu-giver is composed of two pigs and red mats. These two pigs (i.e., tautau and laitali) are said to have the same character as tabeana. These pigs are given without requiring or expecting a counter-gift. After that, four pigs are given to the bugu-receiver and pigs of the same valuation as these pigs and the pigs of bugu should be given back. This is the manner in which vuro proceeds. Furthermore, the 10 pigs in the second counter-giving are called boen mwemwearuvwa (pig of mwemwearuvwa). A man explained this to me as follows: �gThese pigs will go back in the future to someone in the village of the man who received the pig of bugu or someone in the same kin group as the man. If the man who gave the pig of bugu could not give back 10 pigs to the bugu-receiver, the son of the former may do so. This is not the rule. This is the same case as that in which if you are given food, you may give it back sometime. It does not matter if you do not do so.�h The character of mwemwearuvwa is clearly expressed here. The 10 pigs given in the second counter-giving to the bugu-giver are also called nodaru gai profet, borrowing the word of profet from Bislama. This means �gsticks of profit for the two of us.�h It is noteworthy that the profit is thought not to go to one person (i.e., the bugu-giver) but is shared by two persons, the bugu-giver and the bugu-receiver. This also expresses the character of mwemwearuvwa.

Now, we can consider these concepts of exchange found in North Raga in relation to the three kinds of reciprocity, namely generalized reciprocity, balanced reciprocity, and negative reciprocity, proposed by Sahlins (1972:193-195). These concepts of reciprocity seem to be complementarily related to each other at first glance, but closer examination reveals that they are not. According to Sahlins, the generalized reciprocity varies from a pure gift to a gift for which a counter-gift is expected. The gift for which the counter-gift is required is excluded from this kind of reciprocity. The excluded gift now seems to be included in the concept of the balanced reciprocity. However, the balanced reciprocity proposed by Sahlins is applied to the gift for which the equivalent counter-gift should be made �gwithin a fixed period.�h The gift for which the equivalent counter-gift should be made �gat some time in a future,�h like vuro, is excluded from this concept. The third concept, negative reciprocity, applies when one receives a gift unilaterally, such as through an act of haggling or plunder. This may, at first glance, seem like the inverse form of generalized reciprocity, but this is actually not the case because this concept applies only when elements such as hostile relations between the giver and the receiver occur.

Tabeana in North Raga is a kind of pure gift and can also be considered a kind of generalized reciprocity. But since this reciprocity is also applied to the gift for which a counter-gift is expected, mwemwearuvwa seems to be the best case. However, in fact it is not the case because mwemwearuvwa swings between two extreme cases, one of which is tabeana for which the counter-gift is not settled and the other of which is vuro for which the equivalent counter-gift is obligatory. As mentioned, vuro is not encompassed by the concept of balanced reciprocity because the counter-gift for vuro is not given within a fixed period. The time when the counter-gift is made depends on the intention of the vuro-receiver. In contrast, bugu has the same character as the incremental gift-giving (Gregory 1982:54) or profit-making exchange found widely in Papua New Guinea (Strathern 1971, 1983). Is the profit-making exchange explained by the concept of negative reciprocity? According to Sahlins, the negative reciprocity is found in the case of haggling or plunder and comes in effect between persons with remote relationships such as hostiles (Sahlins 1972:196-204). However, bugu in North Raga or the profit-making exchange in Papua New Guinea is not made between hostiles but rather between relatives or friends. In this way, the three concepts of reciprocity proposed by Sahlins are not applicable to the concepts of exchange found in North Raga.

5  First Bolololi

       As described above, the first Bolololi is a ritual in which a man in the grade of moli purchases a special insignia. This insignia is a string of beads made of shell, which is called bani. The following description is mainly based on field data concerning a Bolololi ritual that was conducted in Labultamata village in 1981.

In the ritual, men first perform three kinds of dances called bolaba, tigo, and mantani, respectively. The first two are performed to the accompaniment of slit-drums, whereas the last is danced to a rhythm made by beating a bundle of bamboo shoots. These dances are followed by the stage of �ga pig runs.�h First a conch shell is blown. Then men beat slit-drums and a man starts to run on the ritual ground. If he comes to the ground from side A in Figure 4, he first runs straight ahead on the fringe of the ritual ground to side B. He then runs slowly toward side B in zigzag fashion in the middle of the ground to the rhythm of the slit-drums. He repeats the same actions twice.

It depends on the man whether the running starts from side A or B. If two men start to run simultaneously from sides A and B, each runs straight on each side of the edge of the ground. They then run in a zigzag fashion, crossing each other�fs paths on the way. People think of this running as a kind of dance. After running they stand at the end of the ground with their pigs.

The central figure of the ritual is usually led in by a man of a higher grade. These two men run slowly in zigzag fashion toward the man who is standing with his pig. Then the sounds of slit-drums stop and the pig-giver describes his pig. After his speech, the two men go around the pig-giver a few times in counterclockwise direction and touch the hem of his clothes. Then they take the pig away. The slit-drums start to be beaten again and another man begins to run.        

Those who run on the ritual ground run to the rhythm of the slit-drums. Although it is not known who will run on the ritual ground until a man actually starts to run, the rhythm of the slit-drums is different from man to man. The leader of the drummers decides on the rhythm after he sees who has begun to run. There are given rhythms for the slit-drums. In the case of the Bolololi in which a string of beads is purchased, the first runner should run to the rhythm of bolaba. The rhythms of other men depend on their insignias. A man who has not yet obtained a string of beads should run to the rhythm of bolaba or gaintavuna. A man who purchased a string of beads in a Bolololi ritual can run to the rhythm of tigo or the same ranked rhythm, for example, silonstima. However, if a man wants to run to the rhythm of gori or manga, he should make a special payment for it. The rhythm of the slit-drums is a kind of insignia. Those who run in the stage of �ga pig runs�h usually put a leaf ornament on their backs. This leaf ornament is also a kind of insignia, which I will further explain in Section V of this Introduction.

When a man is running in the zigzag fashion, women sometimes rush from the spectators to the man and begin to run behind him. This is a kind of joking conduct called bwaraitoa (see The Story of Raga III), and the women are the man�fs father�fs sisters. During their running, some women also come out from the spectators and hand out small red mats or hang them on the shoulders of women who are running on the ritual ground. These women are the sisters or classificatory mothers of the man. This action is called langgasi.

After the first runner finishes running, the central figure of the ritual goes to the place called tora (see Figure 4). This is done only in the Bolololi of purchasing a string of beads. The central figure receives a cycad palm leaf at tora. When a man kills pigs in Bolololi, the pigs are tethered to the trunks of cycad palms. The action in the tora shows that he is purchasing the right to use the trunk of the cycad palm in Bolololi. The pig given by the first runner is used for the payment for this leaf. After many men finish running, the last runner starts to run. He is the giver of a string of beads.⁶

After running, the bead-giver stretches his right hand aloft on which a string of beads hangs. The central figure approaches him and from the back he takes the beads.

The stage of �ga pig runs�h is over and the central figure goes to the tora again, where he makes the payments for bolaba and tigo dances. A large white mat that has been hung on the bar of wooden framework called gain tavuna is now laid down in the tora. The central figure stands at the entrance of tora. A ratahigi, namely a chief, gives a speech concerning tora. In front of the central figure there are two large red mats, each of which is used for the payment for bolaba and tigo. A classificatory father of the central figure who was asked to perform the bolaba dance is called and given a red mat that is then put on the head of the central figure. This action is called huni or hunhuni (see The Story of Raga III). Another classificatory father who was asked to perform the tigo dance is also given a red mat in the same manner. A white mat is given to the giver of a string of beads. There are three dances: bolaba, tigo, and mantani. The payment for the mantani dance is made during the dance. A large red mat is given to a classificatory father of the central figure in the manner of huni. 

Next is the first counter-giving to the bugu-giver. The central figure of the ritual, that is, the bugu-receiver gives two pigs and red mats to the bugu-giver. In the ritual ground, two sticks are driven into the ground and a pig is tethered to each stick. If a pig is not brought to the ritual ground for some reason, a leaf of varisangvulu is bound around the stick. Although a pig of tautau and a pig of laitali are counter-gifts to the bugu-giver, the central figure usually purchases some kind of insignia with the pig of tautau or laitali from the bugu-giver. In the first Bolololi, it is usual to purchase the right to use a leaf of varisangvulu as a back ornament; the purchase is made with a pig of tautau from the bugu-giver. In other words, a pig of tautau is used for the counter-gift as well as for the payment for a leaf insignia.

Next is the stage of the payment for a string of beads called bani. Ten sticks are driven in the ritual ground and a pig is tethered to each stick. A chief explains about these pigs. The central figure stands at one end of the row of sticks and the man who gave the beads in the stage of �ga pig runs�h dances (running slowly) toward him to the rhythm of the slit-drums. The bead-giver has a kind of croton called hahari moli, a leaf called sese adomae, and the red tip of the leaf of sago palm called bibitanggure in his hands and a feather of a barn owl called irun visi on his head. These three kinds of leaves and the feather are also given to the central figure along with a string of beads. Ten pigs, two large red mats, and 10 small red mats are paid for these insignias. Table 5 shows the general classes of pigs used as payment for the string of beads. The pig tethered to stick 1 is the payment for the beads (gaiutun bani) and should be of class D. The pig at stick 2 is called �gthe substitute for the pig to be killed (matan masana).�h This pig is of the same class as the pig killed by the central figure to enter the grade of livusi in this Bolololi. The man who gives the string of beads also gave a pig to be killed in this Bolololi. That is, he gave a pig as masa (and also as vuro) to the central figure of the ritual in the stage of �ga pig runs.�h

Table 5 Payment for the string of beads

The central figure killed a pig to enter the grade of tari and another pig to enter the grade of moli. These pigs were given by his real father or classificatory fathers. It is said that these pigs are tabeana of the father. The father who gave those pigs, in this turn, becomes a giver of beads. Since he comes with a pig that the central figure will kill to enter the grade of livusi, the former gives, in total, three pigs to the latter. It is said that the first two pigs are tabenana and the last pig is vuro. Tabeana is a gift to which a counter-gift is not expected. A pig given as vuro is refunded as matan masana as noted above.

After the stage of the payment for the string of beads follows the stage of pig-killing. In the case of the Bolololi held in Labultamata described here, the central figure killed four pigs. In the ritual ground, four trunks of cycad palm were driven and pigs were tethered to them. Men began to beat the slit-drums and the central figure whose body was painted red, the upper grade man who led him, some of his sisters, classificatory mothers, and classificatory fathers who followed him all ran in zigzag fashion to the rhythm of the slit-drums. When he killed one of the pigs, a chief stated his pig name in a loud voice. The same was done for the other pigs. The pig name he got when he killed pigs that were tethered to cycad palms ? (class C), ? (class E), and ? (class D), was Udulalau, and when he killed the last pig ? (class F), he was named Livusiliu (See Figure 4). After that he was known as Livusiliu.

6 Payment for Insignias

       The insignias other than those purchased in the first Bolololi are mainly classified into three categories. One is a category of dress composed of, from the lowest to highest value, a white skirt woven of pandanus leaves named mahangamaita, a red skirt woven of pandanus leaves named tamanggamanngga, and a colorful belt woven of pandanus leaves set with shells named garovuroi. These were originally articles of clothing to be worn when a man killed pigs. A white skirt should be put on when a man made first sese, a red skirt when he killed 10 pigs to enter the vira grade, and a colorful belt when he killed 10 pigs of class E, namely mabuhangvulu.

The same method of payment is applied to all these dress insignias. Here, I describe a case of the purchase of a white skirt. Suppose the giver of the insignia is A and the receiver is B (Figure 5). When B thinks that he will purchase a white skirt in the Bolololi, he looks for a man to give it to him and gets his agreement. On the day of his Bolololi ?, A gives a pig to B as vuro in the stage of �ga pig runs.�h In the latter stage, A now gives a white skirt to B and B gives two pigs to A. One pig is called volin mahangamaita (the payment for the white skirt) and should be of class D. The other pig is called tohebweresi (to make bweresi: bweresi = decorations made at the four corners of the bottom of the basket woven of pandanus leaves) and is usually of class B. Between Bolololi ? and ?, A gives three pigs to B. If A does not give a pig in the stage of �ga pig runs�h of Bolololi ?, he gives four pigs here. Then in Bolololi ?, B gives 10 pigs along with a large red mat as well as 10 small red mats to A. These 10 pigs are called boen mahangamaita (pigs of white skirt).

       Figure 5 shows a model case, but there are some cases in which 10 �gpigs of white skirt�h are given in Bolololi ? or a white skirt is not given in Bolololi ? but will be given afterward. In any case, the substantial payment for the white skirt is composed of eight pigs, a large red mat, and 10 small red mats. For a red skirt and colorful belt, the manner of payment is the same, but the classes of the two pigs that are given first in the Bolololi ? become higher (Table 6). Similarly the classes of the three pigs given by A between Bolololi ? and ? become higher and the last 10 pigs also are of higher class. Take an example of the belt. In a Bolololi I observed, a man A gave four pigs of class E to B, and in the same Bolololi the former gave the colorful belt to B. B gave a pig of F which is called volin garovuroi (the payment for colorful belt) and a pig of E called dovonbovo (to measure one�fs hips). In the same Bolololi A gave 10 pigs called boen garovuroi (pigs of colorful belt). These 10 pigs are usually tethered to 10 sticks but in this Bolololi only eight pigs were tethered while two bags were bound to two sticks. These were bags containing the heads of pigs. It is possible to pay with the head of a dead pig but the class of the pig is regarded as one rank lower (Table 7).

These dress insignias are comparatively durable. They pass to others�f hands in Bolololi rituals. If a man who has purchased a white skirt in his Bolololi is asked to give it in someone�fs Bolololi, he should part with it. Now he has no actual article. However, he can have a new skirt made. His wife will weave a white skirt of pandanus leaves. If he wants to make a new red skirt or belt, he should pay a pig of class E for dyeing a white skirt red or making a belt. A man who has not purchased such an insignia in the Bolololi ritual cannot give it to another man in Bolololi, even if he processes it.

Another category of insignia is leaves. This insignia shows the right to put a leaf on one�fs back as an ornament when a man performs dances or runs in the stage of �ga pig runs.�h The leaf insignia is categorized as, from the lowest to highest valuation, varisangvulu, bwalbwale, and maltunggetungge, all of which are from kinds of ti tree. People reported that the highest valued leaf is vuhunganvanua, but I never observed the use of this kind of ti tree leaf as a back ornament. The payments for leaf insignias are shown in Table 8.

 Table 6 First payment for the skirt and the belt

Table 7 Second payment for the belt

                      Table 8 Payment for leaf insignias

The last category is that of dance. The dance insignia may be classified into two kinds, which I call dance insignia 1 and dance insignia 2, respectively. Dance insignia 1 comprises several dances performed at the beginning of the Bolololi ritual. In the first Bolololi, three kinds of dances, bolaba, tigo and mantani, are performed. At the next Bolololi another dance called havwana is performed every time. There is no special payment for havwana, but gori, havwan lavoa, and havwan boe should be purchased with pigs. A large red mat is given to the father of the central figure who is asked to perform a dance every time such a dance is performed. Dance insignia 2 represents the right to run to a specified rhythm in the stage of �ga pig runs.�h As mentioned above, a man in his first Bolololi can run to the rhythm of bolaba. After finishing the first Bolololi, one has the right to use the rhythm of tigo. Gori of dance insignia 2 is automatically granted when the gori dance for dance insignia 1 held in the beginning of the Bolololi is purchased. The payments for dance insignias are shown in Table 9

  It is noteworthy here that these insignias are often purchased from the bugu-giver. As an example, I explain the case of the purchase of a white skirt. Although the insignia-giver A normally gives a pig of bugu plus four pigs, in total five pigs to B (Figure 5), in this case A gives a pig of bugu, a white skirt, and three pigs to B(Figure 6).

      In fact there were some cases in which fewer than three pigs were given between ? and ?. In contrast, B first gives two pigs and a large red mat to A. These are tautau and laitali but simultaneously they are also volin mahangamaita and tohebweresi. Similarly 10 pigs serve two roles, one of which is a second counter-giving to the bugu-giver and the other of which is boen mahangamaita (pigs of white skirt). If the bugu-giver and the insignia-giver are different, B should actually give seven pigs and mats to the former and eight pigs and mats to the latter, in total 15 pigs and several mats. However, B loses only eight pigs and mats if B purchases a white skirt from A, who is at the same time a giver of bugu. Interestingly, people in North Raga do not seem to care about the difference between these two cases and the central figure may attain the same prestige in both cases.

       In the case in which a leaf insignia or a dance insignia is purchased from the bugu-giver, a pig of tautau (one of two pigs given to the bugu-giver) serves as the payment for the insignia. In this way, a pig of tautau is used to purchase several insignias. In a case I observed, a man who had obtained every dress insignia, every dance insignia, and two leaf insignias (varisangvulu and maltunggetungge) purchased new insignias with pigs of tautau from the bugu-givers. The new insignias were valen singisingi (a hut of tamtam) and tanbona (a platform in front of the meeting-house). Whatever insignia is purchased, it is actually free if obtained from a bugu-giver. Therefore some newly invented insignias may appear. If another man thinks that it is a nice insignia, then he may get it in his Bolololi. Eventually, a personal insignia may become a public insignia. I wonder whether the two leaf insignias of bwalbwale and vuhunganvanua were originally personal insignias. Today, some people think of them as public insignias but others do not think so.

In North Raga people often use the same thing as different objects. The feast is a good example. In North Raga if a man dies, the funeral ritual is held on the day of the death, and on every tenth day after the man�fs death a kind of feast or ceremonial dinner is held by his relatives in each of several villages.⁷  Suppose a foreigner visits one of those villages where a feast is held. If the host welcomes the foreigner, the funeral feast is also used as a welcome feast. Suppose two pigs are killed by a son of the host to enter the grade of tari and moli and the meat is served as side dishes for the attendants of the feast. Now the host can insist that he supplied two pigs for the side dishes in the feast on the tenth day of the dead and can also insist that he offered two pigs to feast the foreigner. Furthermore it is reasonable for him to insist that he gave two pigs as tabeana to his son to enter the grade of tari and moli.

Table 9 Payment for the dance insignia

       It does not matter to the people how much property is consumed �gin total.�h The important thing is how much property he could nominally consume for each event. The man who holds a funeral feast which also serves as a welcome feast and who prepares three pigs for the side dishes in the feast is more praised than a man who holds two different feasts, one of which is for the dead man and the other of which is for a foreigner and who prepares two pigs for the side dishes in each feast. The fact that a man can purchase an insignia from a man who gave him a pig of bugu can be understood from the same viewpoint.

7 Several Steps of Bolololi

     There are several steps in the series of Bolololi rituals.⁸   I already described the first Bolololi in detail in which a string of beads called bani is purchased. Here I will summarize subsequent Bolololi rituals.

1.  Mwelvavunu

A man holds his next Bolololi some years after his first Bolololi. This time, he gives 10 pigs to a man who gave him a pig of bugu in his first Bolololi. This first giving of 10 pigs to a bugu-giver is called mwelvavunu. Ten trunks of cycad palm are driven into the ritual ground and pigs are tethered to these 10 cycad palms.

1)The stage of dance. Usually the havwana dance is done. In some cases, gori dance may be performed.

2)The stage of �ga pig runs.�h

3)The stage of the first counter-giving for the bugu that is made this time. Two pigs and red mats are given to the bugu-giver. If the gori dance was performed, gori as a dance insignia is purchased here for a pig of tautau. If not, a leaf insignia, maltunggetungge, may be purchased here (the lowest ranked leaf insignia, that is, varisangvulu, was already purchased in the first Bolololi.)

4)The stage of purchasing a food called gaganiva. Although not obligatory to purchase for every man, if a man wants this food, it should be purchased in this Bolololi. Gaganiva is composed of taro, yams, a whole pig, kava, sugarcane, and coconut fibers. The payment is made with a pig of class C.

5)The stage of pig-killing. A man who holds this Bolololi is usually in the grade of livusi. Even if he kills some pigs here, he cannot enter the vira grade.

6)The stage of giving 10 pigs to the previous bugu-giver. This is the stage of mwelvavunu.

2.  Bolololi in which a man purchases a white skirt and makes sese.

The central figure here is now in the grade of livusi. He must kill 10 pigs before he enters the grade of vira. When a man kills 10 pigs, he should wear a white skirt.

1)The stage of dance. Havwana dance is performed. If he obtained the right to perform the gori dance in the previous Bolololi, this dance may also be performed in this Bolololi.

2)The stage of �ga pig runs.�h

3)The stage of the first counter-giving for the bugu in this Bolololi. A white skirt is purchased with a pig of tautau and laitali.

4)The stage of sese. Ten trunks of cycad palm are driven into the ritual ground to which 10 pigs are tethered. A man, the central figure, wearing a white skirt, kills these pigs one after another. When a man performs sese, he should give a pig of class B to a man who already did sese. This giving is called tabe mwelen sese (to lift up a cycad palm for sese). (Tabe or tabeana also means a gift that does not require a counter-gift.) Usually it is done a day before Bolololi for sese.

5)The second counter-giving for the bugu that was given in the previous Bolololi. Here 10 pigs are given to the bugu-giver.

6)The state of taboo after Bolololi. A man who killed 10 pigs in Bolololi becomes tabooed (gogona). He should be secluded in the meeting-house for 10 days. During this seclusion, a man who is of the same or upper grade prepares meals for him. He cannot wash his body during this period. After 10 days, he comes out of the meeting-house and kills⁹ a small pig of class A or so. Then he is released from the state of taboo.

7)Putting a taboo. A man who was released from the state of taboo, in turn, has a power to put a taboo on the land. On the tenth day, a feast is held where a special food such as a laplap pudding called matailonggon mahangamaita (laplap pudding¹⁰ of white skirt) is made. The man gives a large red mat to a man (or more men, if he wants) who has already killed 10 pigs wearing a white skirt. Then a pig of class B or so is given to the man who took care of the novice (that is, the central figure) during his seclusion. After eating the pudding with men of the same or higher grade, the novice goes to the land of his kin group and washes his body. Then he places a taboo to prohibit anyone taking something for some years from the plot of land where he washed his body (Yoshioka 1994:81-82, 1998:218).

3.  Bolololi to enter the grade of vira

A man who is in the grade of livui and finished performing sese will hold a Bolololi to enter the grade of vira in order to become a ratahigi, a chief.

1)The stage of dance. Havwana and gori are performed. Sometimes havwan lavoa is made.

2)The stage of �ga pig runs.�h

3)The stage of the first counter-giving for the bugu made in this Bolololi. The central figure may purchase the insignia of the havwan lavoa dance or a leaf insignia with the pig of tautau.

4)The stage of pig-killing to enter the grade of vira. The novice may kill some pigs among which at least one pig of class F is included. If he did not make sese in the previous Bolololi, he may here kill 10 pigs. If he kills 10 pigs each of which is in class E or higher, it is called mabuhangvulu. In each case, a pig of class F should be included. In this way, the pig-killing can have two roles one of which is that for entering the grade of vira and the other of which is the prescribed killing of 10 pigs.

5)The stage of purchasing a branch of Malay apple (gaviga). This is a characteristic stage of this step of Bolololi. Vira means a flower. The flower of the Malay apple is a symbol of ratahigi, the chief. In the ritual ground, a branch of Malay apple is driven and a large red mat is put on it. Near it, a stick is driven into the ground and a pig of class E is tethered. A chief breaks a small branch of the Malay apple and puts it on the back of the novice. He takes the pig of class E and a large red mat, which are the payment for the branch of Malay apple.

This pig is called tai gaviga (to cut a tree of Malay apple). This is a necessary procedure for the novice to become a chief. He can purchase a branch of Malay apple with a pig of tautau of the bugu if he does not purchase a leaf insignia or a dance insignia in stage 3. However, because the payment for the Malay apple is a pig of class E or higher, the tautau of the bugu should also be of class E or higher and thus the pig of the bugu should be higher than class F. In this case, the pig of tautau is, as mentioned above, called tai gaviga, whereas the pig of laitali is called riv gaviga (to plant a Malay apple). The branch of the Malay apple should be given by a man of the grade of vira. If the bugu-giver is not a chief, a chief puts the Malay apple branch on the novice�fs back in the ritual, but the pigs are given to the bugu-giver. Here, this chief plays his role voluntarily.

6)The stage of second counter-giving for the previous bugu. If the novice purchased a white skirt from the bugu-giver, the 10 pigs here serve both as a second counter-giving and boen mahangamaita (pigs of white skirt).

7)If he kills 10 pigs in this Bolololi, he will get the power to place a taboo.

4.  Bolololi to purchase a red skirt and a belt.

A man who has become a chief wants to obtain a red skirt and a belt. Since he must prepare many high-class pigs, the number of bugu-givers may increase. Although in the past a man wore a red skirt when he killed 10 pigs to enter the grade of vira, at present, the red skirt is purchased after a man becomes a chief.

1)The stage of dance. Havwana and gori are performed. If havwan lavoa was made in the previous Bolololi, it is also performed here.

2)The stage of �ga pig runs.�h A magnificent dance called havwan boe, which is performed only by women, is inserted into the stage of �ga pig runs.�h This dance may be performed in this Bolololi or is made in the previous one. After the dance is finished, payment for it is made to the organizer of the dance. It is not possible to pay with pigs of tautatu or laitali.

3)The stage of the first counter-giving for the bugu in this Bolololi. If there are three bugu-givers, three stages in which the novice gives two pigs and red mats to the bugu-givers occur. A red skirt or a belt may be purchased here with pigs of tautau and laitali.

4)The stage of pig-killing. It is not necessary to kill pigs in this stage, but it is generally expected.

5)The stage of the second counter-giving for the previous bugu.

6)The payment of boen tamanggamangga (pigs of red skirt) or boen garovuroi (pigs of belt) is sometimes made here. This means that the second counter-giving for the bugu is also made here.

7)A man who is of the grade of vira can put a taboo on the land whenever he kills a pig in Bolololi. After 10 day�fs seclusion in the meeting-house, he eats a special laplap pudding called matailonggon tamanggamangga (a pudding of a red skirt) or matailonggon garovuroi (a pudding of a belt).

5.  Bolololi of mabuhangvulu

It is difficult for a man to hold this step of Bolololi using only his own pigs because 10 pigs whose classes are higher than class E should be killed. If some of these pigs are given by others in the stage of �ga pig runs,�h these pigs may not be vuro but bugu because they are in a class higher than E. If there are many bugu, many pigs are used for counter-giving and their tusks should be big. These pigs are difficult for the central figure to prepare by himself and are thus obtained as bugu. The procedure of this step of Bolololi is the same as the previous one. In this Bolololi, the novice should give a pig of class C to a man who already made mabuhangvulu, which is called tabe mwelen mabuhangvulu (gift for the cycad palm for mabuhangvulu). The ten pigs to be killed are tethered to 10 trunks of cycad palm as in the case of sese.

6.  Further steps of Bolololi

Since a man should make the second counter-giving for the bugu made in the previous Bolololi, another Bolololi will be held. In this Bolololi, a man may kill pigs. Even if he kills pigs after becoming a chief, his grade as well as his pig name will not change. However, when he thinks that he has killed enough pigs, he may try to give his name as Vuhunganvanua (the top of the land) or Tunggorovanua (to stand shutting out the island). In one case, a chief gave his name as Tanmonock, which seems to be a name from the Central Pentecost language.

       In Bolololi a man is expected to show his strong power by killing more than the prescribed number of pigs and by purchasing insignia with more pigs than prescribed. In fact, chiefs who kill many pigs are thought to exhibit strong power. However, not all men can behave like this. The six steps of Bolololi described above are model cases. Some of the procedures described in those steps may be replaced. For example, although people say that it is not proper to obtain multiple insignias in only one Bolololi, this actually does occur. In one Bolololi I observed, a man who was in the grade of livusi but had not yet received any insignias attained the string of beads called bani, the leaf insignia of varisangvulu, and a white skirt and performed sese, mwelvavunu, and purchased a branch of Malay apple to enter the grade of vira. In this case, the pig killed to enter the grade of vira was included in the pigs for sese. He also purchased a white skirt with the pigs of tautau and laitali, and he made mwelvavunu by tethering 10 pigs to cycad palm trunks, which served both as the second counter-giving to the bugu-giver and as pigs of white skirt.

Notes

(1) My field research in Vanuatu was conducted from August to December in 1974, from April in 1981 to March in 1982, from August to October in 1985, from July to September in 1991, from September to October in 1992, from August to October in 1996, from August to October in 1997, in September in 2003, from August to September in 2004, in August in 2011, in August in 2012, and September in 2013.

(2) Ratahigi is called jif (chief) in Bislama but is not a �gchief�h as defined by Sahlins. Although the position of ratahigi is regarded as highly successful, it is achieved by great effort. A ratahigi may take a middle position between a �gbig man�h and a �gchief.�h But it is different from a �ggreat man�h as proposed by Godelier (1986). For a more detailed discussion, see Yoshioka 1998 (Chapters 11,12,13,14, and 15) and Nari and Yoshioka 2001.

(3) Kava is called malogu in North Raga and is a kind of Piperaceae shrub. The sap of its roots is a favorite drink.

(4) According to Codrington, there are 12 divisions corresponding to the earthen ovens in the meeting-house. The first five are ma langgelu, gabi liv hangvulu, ma votu, gabi rara, and woda, which are the inferior steps. The sixth step moli �gis the first that is important�h and contains three steps. The ninth step is udu, the tenth nggarae, eleventh livusi, and the last vira (Codrington 1891:114-115). Since he said that the youth in the moli step assumes a name with the prefix Moli, it seems that the last four names (moli, nggarae, livusi, and vira) denote the name of the grade, and the first five names correspond to the divisions in the meeting-house. In contrast, Rivers presented eight names for the grades, tari, moli, bwaranga, osisi, virei, livusi, dali, and vira, stating that only tari, moli, and vira were found at the time of his research (Rivers 1914:210). I did not find the grades named bwaranga, osisi, virei, or dali in my field research, although I found that there was once a famous chief named Vireimala. His grade was vira and he assumed the name with the prefix Virei. Virei may be another name for the grade of vira. Dali is used with the prefix of the name of the grade such as Viradali and may not be the name of a grade.

(5) In some cases I observed, I found that each man who gave a pig as masa actually shot an arrow at the pig he brought to the ritual ground. The arrow was not a true one but only a twig and was shot using a makeshift bow. Therefore the arrow did not puncture the pig, although it is said that in the past, sharp arrows were used that actually stuck in the pigs.

(6) In the Bolololi held at Labultamata village, the men who were not bugu-givers ran as last runners because they arrived at the village very late. They had been asked to prepare bull meat for the feast after Bolololi and the preparations had taken a long time.

(7) North Raga is a matrilineal society with a rule of avunculocal residence. Since the land of a kin group is divided into numerous plots scattered around the whole of North Raga, the members of the same kin group live in different places even if they follow the avunculocal rule. The recent tendency of virilocal residence also promotes such living patterns.

(8) I observed every step of the Bolololi ritual during my field research, except for the Bolololi of mabuhangvulu. The descriptions of Bolololi in this paper are based on data I collected during my field research from 1981 to 1992.

(9) Here he uses a stone rather than a club to kill a pig. To kill a pig in this manner is not referred to as wehi (to kill) but as boha (to throw).

(10) Longgo is a kind of pudding. Grated taro, yams, bananas, and so on are wrapped in banana leaves and then baked by means of hot stones in an earthen oven.

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